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HomeMy WebLinkAboutAllentown Truck Reroute - Appendix E - Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources (Dated 12/14/2024) Appendix D: Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS Tukwila, King County, Washington October 14, 2024 Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 PRECONTACT, ETHNOGRAPHIC, AND HISTORIC CONTEXT FOR CULTURAL RESOURCES WITHIN THE STUDY AREA BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS Tukwila, King County, Washington Prepared for: City of Tukwila 6200 Southcenter Boulevard Tukwila, WA 98188 Prepared by: Zachary Allen, MS Sarah Desimone, MA Lance Wollwage, PhD Jennifer Ferris, MA HDR Engineering, Inc. 929 108th Avenue Suite 1300 Bellevue, WA 98004 Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 1 Executive Summary The City of Tukwila (City) is the lead agency overseeing preparation of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) under the State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) for the proposed Allentown Truck Reroute Project (Project). The Project proposes new access to the South Seattle Intermodal Facility (also known as the BNSF South Seattle Hub) to redirect the flow of commercial traffic in and out of the intermodal facility away from residential access points and surface streets. The existing truck route, no-build alternative, in addition to three proposed route alternatives are analyzed in the EIS to determine potential impacts on the built and natural environment. The alternatives were brought forth through the scoping process and present changes that minimize truck traffic interface with residential and recreational areas. HDR Engineering, Inc. (HDR) was retained to provide cultural resources services including desktop review, archaeological and historic built-environment field surveys within the three proposed route alternatives, and technical reporting in compliance with the Revised Code of Washington. The resulting technical report, Cultural Resources Inventory Report for BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS (Allen et al. 2024), presents the results of HDR’s review and historic built-environment survey. The proposed route alternatives are comprised of road right-of-way and privately-owned parcels where access was not granted for any of the private properties. As a result, archaeological surveys were not performed as part of the cultural resource inventory. HDR performed the reconnaissance-level, historic built-environment resources survey within the Project Area on June 4, 2024. The survey recorded 37 resources within the Project Area that were identified as historic age (35 years old and older). Two of these resources were previously recorded in WISAARD, and 35 of these resources were newly recorded by HDR. All 37 resources have been documented on historic property inventory (HPI) forms in the Washington Information System for Architectural and Archeological Records Data (WISAARD) database. Fifteen of the historic built-environment resources are recommended eligible for listing in the NRHP, Washington Heritage Register (WHR), and King County Landmarks Register (KCLR) either individually or as a contributing property to a potential NRHP-, WHR-, or KCLR- eligible historic district. The remaining 22 historic built-environment resources are recommended not eligible for listing in the NRHP, WHR or KCLR. This appendix summarizes the precontact, ethnographic, and historic context for the cultural resources in the Study Area as presented in Allen et al. 2024. Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for the Study Area The following provides a summary of the precontact, ethnographic, and historic context for the Study Area that is drawn from the associated technical report Cultural Resources Inventory Report for BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS (Allen et al. 2024). Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 2 Precontact Context The temporal time frames used in the following discussion include regional-specific labels that represent shifts in subsistence strategies, sociopolitical organization, settlement and land use, and material culture within the environment of the Puget Sound region, adapted within the broader phase categories used for many regions across the Pacific Northwest. The phases are divided into three sections based on archaeological data and are discussed below as follows: the Paleo-Indian, Archaic, and Pacific periods. 1.1.1. Paleo-Indian Period (Before 12,500 Years BP) Much of the late Pleistocene terrain was uninhabitable because of glaciers, and the lands that were occupied at this time were predominantly coastal reaches. Sites from this period are rare, as Paleo-Indian populations were small and highly mobile, and much of the land during this time was covered by glaciers. The earliest occupants in present-day western Washington at this time are known as Paleo-Indians, who were highly mobile hunter-gatherers living in small groups. These occupations are characterized by the presence of large, fluted projectile points (Ames and Maschner 1999; Carlson 1990). Paleo-Indians were also thought to be maritime-oriented and therefore occupied coastal reaches that are now submerged because of relative sea-level rise following glacial retreat (Carlson 1990; Dixon 1993; Fedje and Christensen 1999; Fladmark 1979). Ocean levels rose and submerged many of these coastal sites with the commencement of the warming Holocene epoch. Coastal sites that were not submerged have been found above the present shoreline because of various geologic processes (Fedje and Christensen 1999). 1.1.2. Archaic Period (12,500–6,400 Years BP) Sites from the Archaic period, which dates from 12,500 to 6,400 years BP, are also sparse within the archaeological record (Ames and Maschner 1999; Carlson 1990). Similar to the Paleo-Indians, populations during the Archaic period were small, highly mobile, and generally concentrated along the coast and major waterways. Sea-level changes, erosion, and dense vegetation have obscured much of the evidence of coastal occupation during this time; however, as the climate continued to warm, glaciers retreated over larger areas and provided opportunity for inland expansion (Ames and Maschner 1999). Archaic sites are identifiable by the presence of large, lanceolate projectile points and bifaces, with the addition of microblades, in Pacific Northwest Archaic tool assemblages (Ames and Maschner 1999). 1.1.3. Pacific Period (circa 6,400–250 Years BP) The Early Pacific period (6,400 to 3,800 years BP) saw an increase in the use of marine resources as well as the appearance of human burials in middens and cemeteries, more diversity in subsistence activities, and the increased use of bone, antler, and ground stone tools. Microblade technology disappeared; however, ground stone tools (e.g., celts and adze blades) appeared in the toolkit, along with diversification of chipped-stone tool forms and an increase in ornamental pieces, which appear in human burial sites and Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 3 cemeteries. This shift likely represented an expansion of contact and trade with neighboring groups (Kirk and Daugherty 2007). The Middle Pacific period (3,800 to 1,500 years BP) is marked by the appearance of long-term settlements and plank houses, intensification of salmon harvesting, and a variegation in tool form and style including fishing technologies (e.g., wooden fishing weirs and girdled/drilled net sinkers) (Ames and Maschner 1999). The Late Pacific period (1,500 to 250 years BP) saw an increase in the use of larger woodworking tools, a decline in the use of chipped-stone tools, and an increase in funerary ritual and burial activities. Stabilizing sea levels during this period mean that the Middle and Late Pacific periods are the most visible in the coastal archaeological record (Ames and Maschner 1999). The end of the Pacific period is marked by the introduction of smallpox to the region (Ames and Maschner 1999). A majority of precontact occupation sites along the Duwamish River have been dated to the Pacific Period (Campbell 1981). Site 45KI00023 (The Duwamish No. 1 site/ həʔapus) exists 4.4 miles downriver from the Project Area. This site was originally recorded in 1975 within the Port of Seattle’s Terminal 107 property. Subsequent archaeological investigations between 1976 and 1996 recorded significant middens features as well as hearths, postholes and the remains of structures, and a limited amount of bone and stone tools (Campbell 1981; Lorenz 1976). Dating of organic material shows occupation of the site from 2,030 to 226 years BP (Robbins et al. 1998). Although data recovery efforts and significant modifications have been made to the Terminal 107 property by the Port of Seattle, a majority of 45KI00023 remains intact. Today the property is Herring’s House Park and is still managed by the Port of Seattle. Ethnographic Context The Project Area is located within the traditional territory of the Duwamish (Dxʷdəwʔabš) people, a Puget Salish- or Lushootseed-speaking group that historically inhabited the Duwamish Valley and the shoreline of Elliot Bay (Cummings 2020; Duwamish Tribe 2021a). The Duwamish were closely tied through intermarriage and a blend of coastal and riverine subsistence strategies with the Suquamish people, who occupied the west side of the Puget Sound near Agate Pass (Haeberlin and Gunther 1930). The Green River and Upper White River (Smulkamish) groups, now known as the Muckleshoot, traditionally inhabited the Duwamish Valley southeast in areas around modern-day Auburn including the upper White and Green Rivers (Cummings 2020). The Duwamish lived in cedar plank houses located along Elliot Bay during the winter months in permanent villages that typically ranged from one to ten houses. They traveled during the warmer seasons for trade and resource procurement throughout their territory in the Duwamish Valley, which extended to Lake Washington, Lake Union, Salmon Bay, and the Duwamish, Black, and Cedar Rivers (Ames and Maschner 1999; Hajda 1990). The Duwamish were adapted to a variety of saltwater and freshwater environments including tidal estuaries, large lake shores, river confluences, and saltwater bays. They Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 4 primarily relied on salmon for subsistence with the addition of other marine resources such as shellfish and various terrestrial game and plant resources (Lewarch et al. 1996). Tool kits included chipped-stone, ground stone, bone, and antler tools for resource gathering and hunting. Adzes, knives, projectile points, and scrapers were typically made from chipped stone available as local and exotic materials. Ground stone tools were most often used for food processing, and bone was used to make fishing hooks. Tool handles, digging sticks, clothing, weaving looms, canoes, netting, and baskets were made from various woods and their derivatives. Numerous vegetative species were used to make baskets, decorative items, and other daily objects (Hajda 1990; Haeberlin and Gunther 1930). Complex arts and utilitarian objects developed along with increased craft specialization including wood-carved utensils and household items, preserved foodstuffs, basketry, blankets, and tools. Puget Salish groups engaged in complex political, social and economic organizations, and practices including potlatches and spirit quests (Elmendorf 1971). Groups also organized by social stratification whereby villages consisted of elite, commoner, and slave classes (Ames 2001; Grier 2003). Northwest Native populations were affected by westward expansion of Euro-Americans well before initial contact in the form of disease transmission, as well as the exchange of trade. Evidence of smallpox among Native communities was observed by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark during their journey to the Pacific Ocean beginning in 1804, and it is estimated that the spread of disease had begun approximately 30 years prior to their observations (Goetz et al. 2009). Though rapid Euro-American settlement of the Puget Sound area brought significant upheaval to traditional Native subsistence practices, as well as social and political foundations, initial relations between Euro-Americans and Native American groups were relatively peaceful. In 1840, the Hudson Bay Company established Fort Nisqually, a trading post along the Nisqually River in what is today DuPont (Cummings 2020). This fortification served as a base for the non-indigenous exploration of the central and northern Puget Sound by new settlers looking to claim homesteads in the newly established Oregon Territory (Cummings 2020). Early land claims were filed by prospective homesteaders even though the U.S government had yet to establish the rights to lands at the time, leading to the need to establish treaties with indigenous peoples in and around the greater Puget Sound. The Stevens Treaties, a series of treaties established between 1854 and 1856 by Washington Governor Isaac Stevens, would significantly disrupt this accord as indigenous peoples were reorganized from traditional familial groups to larger aggregated tribes based loosely on geographic location, with tribal rights outlined and enforced by Euro-American settlers. These tribes were consolidated in both names and locations, forcing multiple groups into a limited number of reservations, and ceding traditional indigenous lands in exchange for retaining hunting and fishing rights at various locations (Cummings 2020; Richards 2005). In 1855, the Duwamish, Suquamish, and numerous other tribes signed the Treaty of Point Elliott at Mukilteo. It was signed by Se’alth of the Duwamish and other indigenous leaders selected to represent their people by the U.S government, including Ts'huahntl, Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 5 Now-a-chais, and Ha-seh-doo-an, all of the Duwamish Tribe (GOIA 2024). Reservations were regionally established including the Tulalip, Port Madison, Swinomish, and Lummi Reservations, which became the new home for much of the local indigenous populations. The Duwamish people, who were included in the Treaty of Point Elliott, were assigned to the Port Madison and Muckleshoot reservations in exchange for ceding 54,000 acres to the U.S government (Celmer 1995, Cummings 2020; Lane 1988). However, some Duwamish, especially those living upriver, refused to recognize the treaty as legitimate and continued to live in their traditional lands along the White, Green, and Black Rivers. As early as 1867, the Duwamish sought to establish a reservation at the confluence of the Black and Cedar Rivers (Celmer 1995; Cummings 2020; Lane 1988). The Duwamish Tribe is still pursuing federal recognition through the U.S Department of the Interior (Duwamish Tribe 2021b). The Project Area is located 13.3 miles north of the Muckleshoot Reservation, and 19.4 miles east of the Suquamish Reservation. The Duwamish Longhouse sits on the opposite bank of the Duwamish River from the Project Area and serves as a hub for the Duwamish people and houses Duwamish Tribal Services, a non-profit dedicated to promoting Duwamish heritage and ensuring that the needs of Duwamish members are met. Due to its proximity to the community of Seattle and fertile soils, the Lower Duwamish River valley was a location where many homesteaders chose to settle after the Donation Land Claims Act of 1850 opened much of the west to white settlement. Many land claims were secured prior to the ratification of many of the Stevens Treaties, including the Treaty of Point Elliot. Encroachment by non-indigenous homesteaders along the Puget Sound lowlands, together with anger over the hurried and unbalanced nature of the Stevens Treaties, led to a series of skirmishes between indigenous peoples led by Leschi of the Nisqually and white settlers along the White River and upper Duwamish watershed (Cummings 2020). The altercations culminated in the “Battle of Seattle” in 1856, where up to 2,500 allied indigenous fighters attempted to expel white settlers from the incipient settlement of Seattle. The battle lasted only one day and resulted in minimal casualties, with an accord being reached on Fox Island in 1857 that established the Muckleshoot Reservation in present day Auburn. Today, the Duwamish have over 600 enrolled members throughout the Puget Sound (Duwamish Tribe 2021a). Historic Context Allentown is a neighborhood in the northeastern portion of the city of Tukwila. Allentown’s boundaries are formed by the right-of-way for a Seattle City Light transmission line corridor to the north, I-5 and BNSF’s South Seattle Intermodal Facility to the east, and the Duwamish River to the south and west. The community sits at approximately River Mile 8 of the Duwamish River. Zoned for low-density residential development, land use in Allentown is primarily single- family housing, along with several neighborhood parks, the Tukwila Community Center, and the Green River Trail (GRT). Natural areas include restored habitat in the Duwamish Hill Reserve, several small wetlands, and the Duwamish River’s riparian corridor. In addition to BNSF’s South Seattle Intermodal Facility, nearby land uses include the Gateway Corporate Center, single-family development in the Riverton neighborhood, and Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 6 commercial development along 48th Avenue South, which consists primarily of freight and truck-related services. Several major transportation routes are in the vicinity of Allentown, including Interstate 5 (I-5) to the east and south, State Route (SR) 900 to the east, and to the west are SR 599, Interurban Avenue, East Marginal Way, and an elevated section of Sound Transit’s Link Light Rail line. 1.3.1. Overview of 19th and Early 20th Century Development The first non-indigenous settlers in King County and the greater Seattle area arrived in September 1851 when the Collins party landed in the Duwamish Valley, north of present- day Allentown. At that time, there were approximately 300 Native Americans living along the banks of the Duwamish River, and approximately 700 at Duwamish Head in West Seattle (Reinartz 1991:7). That same year, the Denny Party landed on Alki Point in West Seattle before moving to Pioneer Square, where Seattle was established as the trading center for the region due to its wharves and deepwater port. Two years later, in 1853, Joseph and Stephen Foster homesteaded about 10 miles south of Seattle in the Duwamish Valley near present-day Allentown. By the end of 1855, 20 non-indigenous settlers had filed Donation Land Claims in the Duwamish River Valley. Between 1864 and 1870, David Graham and his wife Susannah Mercer, daughter of Seattle founder Thomas Mercer, purchased 400 acres in and around present-day Allentown (BLM 2024). Throughout the nineteenth and early-twentieth century, steam ships plied the waters of the Duwamish, Black, and White Rivers, connecting the various settlements of the Duwamish Valley. Steamers transported people, livestock, produce, freight, and mail between landings that were established at Riverton, Foster, and Allentown (then known as the Duwamish District), all of which have since been incorporated into the City of Tukwila (Reinartz 1991:90-95, 256). River travel was the primary method of transport until 1902, when the Seattle-Tacoma Interurban Railway (later called the Puget Sound Electric Railway, and commonly known as the Interurban) was built between Seattle and Tacoma, passing through Allentown, Foster, and Tukwila alongside present-day Interurban Avenue. While intended primarily for passenger service, the Interurban routinely hauled seasonal produce and milk from numerous farms and dairies along the route, and occasionally hauled logs, lumber, and other heavy loads. Daily newspapers and mail were also carried along that route (Reinartz 1991:90-95) (see Figure 3-1). The Interurban was a primary driver towards population growth in the Tukwila area as it enabled people to live in the Duwamish Valley and work, sell agricultural products, and attend church, school, and other social functions in the larger cities along the line. Beginning with Joseph Foster in 1901, developers began subdividing the large farm and homestead parcels while platting residential neighborhoods. Between 1902 and 1912, 44 plats were filed for the Tukwila area including those in Foster, Riverton, and Allentown (Reinartz 1991:90). The town of Tukwila was incorporated in 1908, with Joel Shomaker as its first appointed mayor. The first two years were focused on construction of roads, wooden sidewalks, and storm drains. In 1907, Tukwila’s first school was built, and Tukwila students no longer had to ride the Interurban to Foster or Renton to attend school (Reinartz 1991:186-188). By 1910, the town had 412 residents, and the first brick-paved roadway, Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 7 the Pacific Highway, was built through town in 1916, following the route of the current Interurban Avenue (Reinartz 1991:191). In 1917, the Boeing Airplane Company built an airplane manufacturing plant on the Duwamish River, north of Tukwila, which was linked to Tukwila by the Interurban (Kershner 2015; USGS 2024). Between 1912 and 1917, the lower Duwamish River near present-day Georgetown was manually straightened, and the channel was dredged at the direction of the Port of Seattle. This created a 4.5-mile-long, 50-foot-deep waterway that would support the Port’s planned industrial development on the Duwamish (Reinartz 1991:209; Wilma 2001). During the Great Depression, beginning in 1929, jobs became scarce; however, Tukwila found relief from programs administered through the Works Progress Administration (WPA), which maintained active work crews in Tukwila. Beginning in 1935, the WPA workforce made street improvements, built concrete sidewalks, and installed street lighting. The WPA also improved Tukwila Park with the construction of a tennis court, outhouse, wood storage shed, four log cabins, and a cook house with a large wood burning stove, tables, and a sink (Reinartz 1991:204). In 1936, the Boeing Airplane Company built a second plant on the east bank of the Duwamish River north of Allentown (Kershner 2015). In the 1940s and 1950s, Tukwila remained a rural community with large farms and dairies still prevalent; however, denser residential areas were beginning to form. After World War II, the community began shifting from an agricultural base to that of manufacturing as residents traded commercial poultry, dairy, and other farming operations for employment at Boeing and other industrial companies in south Seattle (Reinartz 1991:205). Like most of the country postwar, Tukwila experienced an increase in residential construction and population, reaching a total of approximately 800 residents by 1950. Eighty-four building permits were issued in Tukwila between 1947 and 1949, most of which were for residential buildings. In the new residential areas, streets were built, and new water mains were laid (Reinartz 1991:206-207) (Figure 3-2). In the 1950s, the Port of Seattle made plans to expand industrial zoning on the Duwamish southward by straightening, deepening, and widening the river through Tukwila. A feasibility study was undertaken in 1954, and plans were prepared in 1956 that would direct the conversion of 600 acres of agricultural and residential land into industrial properties by 1959 (Reinartz 1991:208-209). In an effort to thwart the Port’s plan, the City of Tukwila’s leadership began an annexation campaign that would prevent the Port from taking control of the Duwamish Valley. In 1957, Tukwila adopted a zoning plan for its annexed areas that would limit development to light industrial (Reinartz 1991:211). Andover Park and the Southcenter shopping area, both light industrial zones, were annexed in 1957. The Andover Industrial Park opened in 1961, and Southcenter Mall was completed in 1968 (Reinartz 1991:213). 1.3.2. Allentown In the early 1900s, the Allentown area was subdivided and platted by two developers, the Allens and the Hillmans (Reinartz 1991:155). The Hillmans purchased land owned by the Graham family to develop Hillman’s Meadow Gardens in 1905, clearing, grading, and Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 8 selling one-acre tracts for $150-250 each (Seattle Daily Times 1905a, 1905b). Hillman employed prolific and creative advertising campaigns that included “grand free excursions” to his development on the Columbia and Puget Sound Railroad (C&PS). These excursions included all the apples and pears patrons could eat (Seattle Daily Times 1905b). Hillman was later convicted of mail fraud and sentenced to the federal penitentiary in Walla Walla for mailing false real estate advertisements (Reinartz 1991:183). By 1912, there were approximately 100 people living in Allentown, and the community had telephone service and a rural delivery mail route (R.F.D. Route 5). At that time, the most common occupations among the residents were laborer and carpenter. Allentown was also home to a few female professionals including eight teachers and four nurses (Polk 1911; Reinartz 1991:157). Allentown’s business district was centered around present-day 42nd Avenue South along the riverbank. Businesses there included a hotel, dance hall, saloon, and grocery store. Paul Monroe, a prolific Seattle builder, built several homes in Allentown between 1910 and 1940, including his own Pueblo Revival bungalow at 11616 42nd Avenue South (DAHP 2024; Reinartz 1991:162). Allentown’s location on the Pacific Highway, completed in 1916, cemented the town’s place as the hub of transportation in the Duwamish Valley through the mid-1920s (Reinartz 1991:157- 159). However, the Pacific Highway was rerouted in 1928 to the west side of the Duwamish River, bypassing Allentown. The new Pacific Highway (current SR 99) became the primary route between Seattle and Tacoma (NETR 2024; Reinartz 1991:164; USGS 2024). By 1940, parcels along the bank of the Duwamish River in both the Hillman and Allen plats had been developed, though many of those plats remained rural and minimally developed. Most parcels in the Allen and Hillman plats were further subdivided and improved upon between 1940 and 1964 (NETR 2024). In 1966, the Archie Codiga Bridge was built over the Northern Pacific Railroad (NP) right-of-way (ROW) and, in 1967, I-5 was completed through Allentown between SR 900 and the NP ROW. In 1970, Burlington Northern Railroad (BN) widened the railroad ROW and constructed its Intermodal Facility (BNSF 2010, 2024; NETR 2024). On the west bank of the Duwamish, south of the Allen and Hillman plats, the peninsula began to develop into a light industrial area in about 1968. By 1969, a large trucking business had been constructed along I-5 and, by 1977, the south half of the peninsula had been developed. By 1980, Tukwila Commerce Park had been completed at the north end of the peninsula (King County 2024; NETR 2024). Gateway Corporate Center was in development by 1986 and completed by 1991 (Nicola Wealth 2024). The BECU building was completed in 1990 (King County 2024). The Duwamish-Allentown-North Riverton area was annexed to the city of Tukwila in 1989 (Reinartz 1991:256). Allentown Addition to the City of Seattle The Allentown Addition to the City of Seattle was platted in 1906 by Joseph and Flora Allen using a portion of the Bennett L. John Donation Land Claim (BLM 2024). The plat included the area bound roughly by New York Avenue (NE 122nd Street) to the north, Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 9 the Duwamish River to the west and south, and the BNSF railway property to the east. The Allens soon developed a second plat, Allentown Acres, to the east (City of Tukwila 2024). Codiga Farm – Archie Codiga Beginning in 1910, Archie Codiga began operating the Codiga Dairy Farm at the current site of Codiga Park on the east bank of the Duwamish River, approximately 0.25-mile west of Codiga Bridge. Archie Codiga married Anna Hadeen, a schoolteacher at the nearby Duwamish School, and they had five children. The farm eventually expanded to 130 acres, encompassing land on both sides of the Duwamish River; all five of the Codiga’s children worked on the farm and delivered milk. Archie and Anna’s daughter, Frances North, served in the Washington State House of Representatives from 1973- 1983, and their son, James “Jim” Codiga, lived on the farm keeping a small herd of cattle there until at least 1990 (Legacy.com 2024; Reinartz 1991:159). In 1970, much of the Codiga Farm property was purchased by King County. The property was subsequently transferred to the City of Tukwila in 1990 for a future park site (City of Tukwila 2001). The farm buildings were demolished between 2002 and 2009, and the City of Tukwila developed the site into a park and a partially restored tidal wetland in 2009 (City of Tukwila 2009, 2024). 1.3.3. Transportation Overview Duwamish River Road, the first roadway in King County, was completed through Tukwila ca. 1855 (Reinartz 1990:30). In 1860, the Military Road from Seattle to Fort Steilacoom in Tacoma was the first state road to pass through Tukwila, constructed through Tukwila’s Riverton area. During the 1910s, the Military Road and others in the area were regraded, widened, and graveled. In 1916, the Pacific Highway opened on the east side of the Duwamish River, passing through Allentown, providing an alternate route to the Military Road between Seattle and Tacoma (Reinartz 1990:98). In 1928, the rerouted and brick-paved Pacific Highway (current SR 99) was completed through Tukwila on the west side of the Duwamish River, which became Washington State’s and the Duwamish Valley’s primary north-south thoroughfare. In the 1960s, I-5 replaced SR 99 as the state’s major north-south route (Heilman 1967; NETR 2024; Ott 2013). In Tukwila, I-5 was completed through Allentown in 1967 (Heilman 1967). Circa 1967, the alignment of South Boeing Access Road was completed in conjunction with I-5. The alignment stretches between East Marginal Way South and Martin Luther King Junior Way South/SR 900 and has bridges that span three locations (from west to east): Airport Way South (1952), the BNSF ROW (1945), and I-5 (ca. 1967) (NETR 2024; WSBIS 2024). Approximately 1.50 mile south, the Archie Codiga Bridge which spans both the BNSF ROW and I-5 was completed in 1966, also in conjunction with the construction of I-5 (WSBIS 2024). Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 10 State Route 900 State Route 900 (SR 900) was established prior to 1909 as part of Primary State Highway 2 (PSH 2). In 1915, the current route of SR 900 between Tukwila and Renton appears to have been included in the alignment of the Sunset Highway, which was established that year as Washington’s primary east-west highway between Seattle and Spokane (Artifacts & SRI 2013; Ott 2013). The Sunset Highway was renamed PSH 2 in 1923. In 1940, the Seattle to Issaquah segment of the Sunset Highway was rerouted across Lake Washington on the new floating bridge (later named the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge). No longer part of the Sunset Highway, the Seattle to Issaquah segment continued as SR 900 (Artifacts & SRI 2013; USGS 2024). Railroads In 1877, the first railroad in the Duwamish and White River valleys was completed from Seattle to Renton – the Seattle and Walla Walla (S&WW) narrow-gauge railway. The S&WW was expanded to Newcastle in 1878. In 1880, Henry Villard, President of the Northern Pacific Railroad (NP), bought the S&WW, combined it with another railroad, and renamed it the Columbia & Puget Sound (C&PS). In 1883, the C&PS provided the Duwamish Valley’s first link to transcontinental shipping as the track was widened and improved to carry the NP’s standard gauge Puget Sound Shore Railroad (PSS) to Tacoma where it met with NPs transcontinental line (Doncaster 2020; Robertson 1995:204). The NP loosely followed the Duwamish River to Tacoma with a freight and passenger station at Orillia near present-day Southcenter Mall (Google 2024; Reinartz 1991:89). In 1892, NP acquired the Seattle, Lake Shore, & Eastern (SLS&E) railway, which completed the line from Seattle to the Canadian border at Sumas (MacIntosh 1999). By 1909, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific (CMStP&P – commonly known as the Milwaukee Road) was operating its Pacific Extension between the Midwest and Black River Junction where it would connect with the NP-owned C&PS to reach Seattle (Burns 2024; USGS 2024). Union Pacific Railroad In 1906, the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) incorporated the Oregon & Washington Railroad Company (later the Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation Company [OWR&N]) to begin construction on a Portland-to-Seattle railroad line. The UP had hoped to use part of the NP’s line that was operating from Vancouver to Tacoma. To gain access to Seattle, the UP had to strike track usage agreements with the Milwaukee Road and construct segments of new line. By 1910, OWR&N trains were operating between Portland and Seattle. The company owned 25.30 miles of the 244-mile line including the 6-mile Black River Junction (Renton) to Argo Yard (Seattle) segment through Tukwila (although the line is identified as belonging to the Milwaukee Road on maps from 1968 and 1973 and as UP in 1975) (USGS 2024; Utahrails.net 2024). This misidentification is likely due to the short length (6 miles) of the segment through Tukwila and the fact that the segment south of Black River Junction to Tacoma was owned jointly with the Milwaukee Road. In 1911, the UP built Seattle’s Union Station, which was used jointly by OWR&N and Milwaukee Road trains (Utahrails.net 2024). The OWR&N continued to operate until at least 1980, but the name fell out of use by 1950 when all OWR&N trains began brandishing the UP name and logo. Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 11 BNSF Railway The current BNSF Railway, historically known as the Burlington Northern Santa Fe Railway, is comprised of 390 predecessor railroads established between 1849 and 1970. The oldest of the BNSF predecessors were founded in 1849: the Aurora Branch Line (later the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy [CB&Q]) and the Pacific Railroad of Missouri. In 1859, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway (Santa Fe) was built along the Santa Fe Trail, an existing commerce route throughout the southwest. One of the youngest of BNSF predecessor railroads is the Burlington Northern Railroad (BN) which was formed in 1970 with the merger of the CB&Q; the Great Northern (GN); the NP; the Spokane, Portland, & Seattle (SP&S); and the Pacific Coast Railway. BN and Santa Fe merged on September 22, 1995, to form Burlington Northern Santa Fe, which was the largest rail network in North America at the time. In 2005, the company rebranded itself as BNSF Railway (BNSF). In 2010, BNSF was acquired by Berkshire Hathaway (BNSF 2010). BNSF Intermodal Operations Intermodal transportation is the transportation of freight in standardized steel freight containers using two or more shipping methods such as rail, truck, sea, and air (Inbound Logistics 2022). In the late-1960s, BN began opening numerous intermodal hub centers which consolidated hundreds of piggyback ramps (for loading highway trailers onto railroad flatcars) at strategic locations throughout the United States. These intermodal hubs enabled railroads to generate the high volume of trailers and containers necessary to justify dedicated and scheduled intermodal trains, allowing them to compete with the trucking industry. Each BNSF hub varies in equipment, complexity, and size based on their location. The South Seattle Intermodal facility is part of the northern transcontinental route between the Pacific Northwest and Chicago, with connections to the southern transcontinental division throughout Texas. BNSF currently operates 22 intermodal facilities in the United States, three of which are in Washington: Seattle, Spokane, and the subject South Seattle facility (BNSF 2010, 2024). 1.3.4. Seattle Police Athletic Association Established during World War II, the Seattle Police Athletic Association (SPAA) is a non- profit, membership-based organization serving current and retired Seattle Police Department (SPD) officers, other law enforcement and first responder personnel, and private citizens. The SPAA was originally established as a marksmanship and physical fitness facility for SPD officers and was expanded after World War II to include civilians (SPAA 2024). The Seattle Police Department Rehabilitation Project Located outside of Seattle City Limits at the time, the current SPAA site was purchased by the SPAA in 1943. Replacing an earlier SPAA pistol range at an unidentified location, the site was intended for use as a pistol range and training area for local military personnel during World War II, and by the police department following the war (Seattle Daily Times 1943; Shults 1945). Beginning in 1943, the SPD utilized prisoner labor from the city’s jail to help with site construction. By 1945, the SPD was bringing 6-12 prisoners to the site daily to help improve existing structures and build new structures, such as Precontact, Ethnographic, and Historic Context for Cultural Resources within the Study Area BNSF Allentown Truck Re-Route Project EIS October 2024 | 12 wooden target frames. The prisoners were unpaid “volunteers”; however, they were given “more and better food than nonworking prisoners,” said Seattle City Councilman William L. Norton, in a 1943 Seattle Daily Times article. Norton’s article also suggested that a permanent work camp with housing facilities should be constructed on the site for at least 100 prisoners who would live there and work for the duration of their sentences. Norton stated that construction plans for the facility included a clubhouse, recreation field, and additional rifle and pistol ranges (Seattle Star 1943). Project construction, which began in 1943, was directed by Walter F. Day, the officer in charge of the SPD range as well as the President of the SPAA at that time. Day served as Chief of Police in 1947 and spent 27 years with SPD (Find-A-Grave 2024; Seattle Star 1943; Shults 1945). Day felt that providing a barracks for prison workers would help rehabilitate those with short sentences. In 1943, membership to the SPAA pistol range was opened to civilians to help finance the post-war building program (Seattle Star 1943; Shults 1945). Seattle Police Alcoholic Rehabilitation Farm In August 1947, the Police Alcoholic Rehabilitation Farm was started by Police Chief George Eastman on the SPAA parcels. The purpose was for chronic alcoholics in the city jail to “get rid of their craving for drink” through farm work and outdoor life (Burr 1959). The SPAA donated 32 acres of land to the city with the agreement that the city would maintain the SPAA’s Rifle and Pistol Ranges located there. An additional 19 acres of land were leased from the NP and 6 additional acres were purchased for a total of 57 acres. The project officially opened in August 1948 with 50 inmates (called “patients”), and by 1953, the capacity had been increased to 100 patients. The patients constructed all the buildings on the property, including a two-story building containing the kitchen, mess hall, and accommodations for 50 (SPD Rehabilitation Program [SPDRP] Dormitory); a barracks for 50 people; an Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) Club and Radio building; a Quonset hut with a “lounging room” for reading, church services, television, and other activities; a blacksmith shop; a carpenter shop; garages; and storage buildings (Burr 1959). The city invested $190,000 and spent approximately $75,000-$100,000 per year on the farm. The farm averaged 90 inmates per day, with an average term of 41 days, all of whom had been convicted of drunkenness at least five times prior and were allowed to choose the rehabilitation farm rather than jail. The inmates raised vegetables, took care of 500 pigs on the site, and worked as carpenters, welders, plumbers, and cooks. Representatives from AA, Red Cross, and the Council of Churches visited and provided counseling and religious services. By 1959, the facility had received a total of almost 10,000 admissions involving a total of 5,000 people (Burr 1959:76). Research at the reconnaissance level was unable to provide further information regarding the SPD’s Alcoholics Rehabilitation Farm including its tenure on the current SPAA site. 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